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There has also been a popular YouTube video How Wolves Change Rivers, which has been described as a vast overstatement by some scientists. The consideration of wolves as a charismatic species and the fame of Yellowstone led to widespread media attention of the concept, including a mention in The New York Times and a fold-out illustration of the impact of wolves on Yellowstone in the March 2010 edition of the National Geographic. Critics have put forward alternative explanations for the regrowth, other than the wolf reintroduction. Some studies also indicated that the wolves affected the grazing intensity and patterns of the elk because they felt less secure when feeding. In the 2000s, the ecology of fear gained attention after researchers identified an impact of the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone on the regrowth of aspen and willows because of a substantial reduction in the numbers of elk in the park through killing. The concept was coined in the 1999 paper "The Ecology of Fear: Optimal Foraging, Game Theory, and Trophic Interactions", which argued that "a predator depletes a food patch by frightening prey rather than by actually killing prey."
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To avoid being killed, animals that are preyed upon will employ anti-predator defenses which aid survival but may carry substantial costs. Within ecology, the impact of predators has been traditionally viewed as limited to the animals that they directly kill, while the ecology of fear advances evidence that predators may have a far more substantial impact on the individuals that they predate, reducing fecundity, survival and population sizes. The ecology of fear is a conceptual framework describing the psychological impact that predator-induced stress experienced by animals has on populations and ecosystems.
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Snow imprints showing traces of predator-prey interaction For the non-fiction book, see Ecology of Fear.